Gardens of the Roman Empire

Divorum

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Garden

Garden of the Divorum

Keywords

Garden Description

The Divorum, also known as the Templum Divorum (Degrassi 13.1.103, 233) and the Porticus Divorum, was a porticus with two small temples built in honor of Titus and Vespasian by Domitian, who constructed the complex after the first of 80 CE on the site of the Villa Publica (Chronographer of 354 CE). The Divorum, known from its depiction on the Severan Marble Plan (FUR) (Fig.1), is located on the eastern Campus Martius among other religious structures, including the Temple of Minerva Chalcidica, which visually integrated with the Divorum.

The porticus complex (220 x 55m) (Fig. 2) consists of a northern entry in the form of a triumphal arch, flanked on the inside by two small temples (Fig. 2, a and b), while at the southern end of the central axis lay a stepped altar or pool (Fig. 2, c). The enclosing porticoes featured 30-33 columns on the east and west sides, with 16-17 columns on the south. The porticoes, as depicted, featured only two exedrae: one irregularly placed on the east side, and one terminating the central axis at the south. Shaded walks are indicated on the Marble Plan by dots representing ranks of trees in the central space: two rows of 13 trees lined the western side, while one row of 12 and one row of 11 lined the eastern side (Fig. 3). The lack of symmetry may have been intentional: the open space permits a clear view and movement between the entrance and the front of the east exedra. Perspective studies indicate a visual relationship between the southern exedra, the altar/pool, and the framed view of the Temple of Minerva Chalcidica from within the strolling grounds.

From the northern exedra, a water channel appears to lead to the altar or pool, which is stepped up or down on the north and south, depending upon the interpretation of the feature. Another water channel appears along the interior western edge of the porticus. The Amnis Petronia passes by the complex at the northwest corner.

Figures

Fig. 1: Photograph of the Severan Forma Urbis depicting the Divorum. © Stanford Project.

Fig. 2: Reconstructed plan of the Divorum. © Valerie Aymer.

Fig. 3: Perspective view looking north along the central axis. © Valerie Aymer.

Dates

80 CE

Bibliography

L. Richardson, Jr., "The Villa Publica and the Divorum" in In Memoriam Otto J. Brendel, Eds. L. Bonfante and H. von Heintze, Mainz, 1976, pp. 159-163. (worldcat)
R. H. Darwall-Smith, Emperors of Architecture: A Study of Flavian Rome, Collection Latomus 231 (1996), pp. 125-7, 139-40, 157-9, 172-7. (worldcat)
J. B. Ward-Perkins, Roman Imperial Architecture, Yale, 1981, pp. 20, 50-1, 74-5. (worldcat)
A. Degrassi (ed.), Inscriptiones Italiae XIII: Fasti et Elogia, Rome, 1937. (worldcat)

Places

Roma Pleiades: 423025

Hercules Musarum

Sat, 17 Apr 2021 00:00:00 +0000

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Garden

Garden of the Hercules Musarum

Keywords

Garden Description

The Aedes Hercules Musarum was located in the southern Campus Martius. It was enclosed by the Porticus Philippi (61 x 92 m.) in the late Republican period. Known from several fragments of the Severan Marble Plan (Forma Urbis Romae), it was also adjacent (to the northwest) to the Porticus Octaviae (Figs. 1-2). M. Fulvius Nobilior, consul in 189 BCE (and censor with M. Aemilius Lepidus in 179 BCE), may have built the temple between 187 and 179 BCE (Eumen. Pan. 5.7.3) after his triumph. Ovid (Fast. 6.801-2) and Suetonius (Aug. 29.5) state that L. Marcius Philippus (who had a triumph in 34 or 33 BCE) restored the temple and built the portico around it.

Knowledge of the complex derives primarily from the Severan Marble Plan (FUR) and ancient sources. The complex consisted of a circular temple (aedes) dedicated to Hercules Musarum (Hercules of the Muses) set within a porticus (Fig. 3). In the mid-1980s, P.A. Gianfrotta excavated a small part of the central edifice, discovering a small interior corridor (1 m. wide), restored in the imperial period. These excavations demonstrated that few alterations had been made to the original structure, suggesting that the Marble Plan depicts the original portico. The temple was located on a south-facing podium (c. 48 x 21 m., H 3.5 m) with an exedra (diam. 11 m). On the sides of podium were a series of twelve niches (W. 3.5 m), where the fasti may have been displayed (Macrob. Sat. 1.12.16 | Trans.). North of the podium were nine bases, possibly for statues of the nine Muses of Ambracia (Plin. HN 35.66; Ov. Fast. 6.797-812).

The FUR shows that the temple was surrounded by two rows of dots that are closely, but not perfectly, aligned. Richardson argued the dots represent a double portico; however, Castagnoli argues that the inner row of dots were trees. The different spacing of the inner dots (4-5 m.) and of the outer dots (3-4 m.) would also prove problematic in a double portico and lends support to Castagnoli's interpretation. The elevation difference between the portico and ground level was also c. 3 m., further supporting Castagnoli's interpretation (Fig. 4). Thus, the dots could be interpreted as a lucus (or grove), perhaps of the poplars associated with the cult of Hercules and a flood-tolerant species suitable to the Campus Martius.

The collegium poetarum formally gathered near the complex, and so perhaps the porticus and its exedra could have housed a poetics school with an auditorium for lectures or discussions of poetry and works of art; perhaps functioning like an Alexandrian-inspired Museion (Val. Max. 3.7.11; Plin. HN 34.19).

Figures

Fig. 1. Temple of Hercules Musarum on a fragment of the Severan Marble Plan.

Fig. 2. Temple of Hercules Musarum on the Severan Marble Plan.

Fig. 3: Base plan of the Temple of Hercules Musarum

Credit: (Coarelli, 1997).

Figure 4. Axonometric reconstruction of the aedes Hercules Musarum and transverse section showing possible planting areas

Credit: (Coarelli, 1997, Figs. 113, 114).

Dates

Built between 187 and 179 BCE; restoration and portico constructed in Late Republican era (post 33 BCE)

Excavation Date

1980s

Bibliography

L. Richardson, "Hercules Musarum and the Porticus Philippi in Rome," American Journal of Archaeology 81 (1977), pp. 355-61. (worldcat) | (JSTOR)
F. Castagnoli, "Porticus Philippi," Analecta Romana Instituti Danici suppl. 10 (1983), pp. 93-104. (worldcat)
F. Coarelli, Il Campo Marzio, 1997, pp. 452-84. (worldcat)
A. Viscogliosi, s.v. "Porticus Philippi," Lexicon topographicum urbis Romae IV, pp. 146-48. (worldcat)

Places

Roma Pleiades: 423025

Mausoleum Augusti

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Garden of the Mausoleum of Augustus \

Mausoleum Augusti Pleiades: 281368358

Keywords

Garden Description

The Mausoleum of Augustus was located in the northern Campus Martius between the Via Flaminia and the Tiber. The exact bounds of the park are unknown, but they stretched from north of the Mausoleum of Augustus to south of the Horologium and the Ara Pacis, which was located along the Via Flaminia.

Mausoleum Augusti

Between 28 and 23 BCE, the emperor Augustus erected his Mausoleum in the northern Campus Martius within a public park composed of trees (silvae) and walks (ambulationes) (Strabo 5.3.8; Suet. Aug. 100 | Trans.; Cassius Dio 53.30.5 | Trans.). Excavations of the Mausoleum were carried out in 1869, 1871-1872, 1907-1908, 1916-1930 and 1934-1938. During the excavations conducted under Mussolini (1934-1938), all post-antique structures associated with the Mausoleum were removed. These excavations did not reveal additional information about the plantings and nature of the summit of the Mausoleum.

Reconstructions of the Mausoleum vary with regard to the depiction of the trees and summit of the mound. According to Strabo (5.3.8), evergreen trees (ἀειθᾶλής) were thickly planted on the vault of the Mausoleum up to the summit, where a bronze statue of Augustus stood. Most reconstructions place Italian cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens) atop the structure, and cypresses are planted on the remains of the Mausoleum today. L. Richardson rejected this idea in favor of smaller trees, such as junipers (Juniperis communis), on the basis of the structural damage that the cypress roots would have caused. However, Romans routinely manipulated trees and plants in an art form known as ars topiaria; therefore, ancient gardening techniques would have permitted the cypresses to be dwarfed and adapted for this type of planting (Plin. HN 16.139-42). Moreover, cypress trees were often planted in funerary contexts, making them a suitable choice for the Mausoleum (Plin. HN 16.139-40). Without additional evidence, however, it is impossible to confirm which type of evergreen was planted upon the funereal mound. Some reconstructions place a circular colonnade on the summit as a base for the statue. While there is no mention of such a structure in the ancient sources, the statue must have been placed on some sort of elevated mound in order to be visible above the trees, since the Mausoleum was visible from the Tiber (Strabo 5.3.8; Tacitus Ann. 3.9).

Silvae et Ambulationes

Surrounding the Mausoleum were trees (silvae) and walks (ambulationes). Strabo referred to this region as a precinct or grove (ἄλσος) with pleasant walks (περίπᾰτος). Bounded by the Tiber and the Via Flaminia, the park was open to the public in 28 BCE (Suet. Aug. 100). No archaeological excavations illuminate the layout of these walks or the trees planted. These gardens also held many altars, including the Ara Pacis.

Horologium Augusti

Between 13 and 9 BCE Augustus initiated the building of the Ara Pacis; during the same period, he also erected the Horologium Augusti, a sundial. The Mausoleum and its grove were connected to the rest of Augustus's park by the Horologium. Begun in 10 BCE and dedicated in 9 BCE, the sundial was a celebration of Augustus's Egyptian victory. The red granite Egyptian obelisk (30 m. H.), known as the Montecitorio Obelisk, was brought as booty from Egypt by Augustus. It served as the gnomon for the sundial, casting its shadow on the monumental travertine plaza inlaid with bronze notations. Novius Facundus designed the Horologium and modified the obelisk to have a rounded globe at its peak in order to cast precise shadows (Pliny HN 36.72-76).

In 1976, E. Bucher proposed that the gnomon cast a 150 m. shadow directly across the altar of the Ara Pacis on September 23, Augustus's birthday. In the cellar floor of no. 48 Via di Campo, he uncovered what he believed to be part of the Meridian line of the sundial (although the phase he discovered dated to the Flavian era) with cross bars and signs of the zodiac in Greek, showing how the sundial worked as a calendar and wind index. Using digital reconstructions with shadow and light simulations in combination with further archival work and archaeological coring in the Campus Martius, a team of scholars working under the direction of B. Frischer has demonstrated that, in fact, there were many solar and shadow alignments between the obelisk and the Ara Pacis (on 238 days of the year). These alignments would have played into Augustan themes of peace, family, stability, and fertility, as well as the triumphal victory over Egypt.

Ara Pacis Augustae

The Ara Pacis is the most famous piece of Augustan monumental sculpture in Rome. Dedicated in 9 BCE on Livia's birthday, the Altar of Peace was a celebration of Augustus's Pax Romana. Located adjacent to the Via Flaminia, there is no specific evidence for its park setting; however, the sculptural reliefs, especially the vegetation depicted in the lower register of the marble wall that encloses the altar, contributed to the overall themes of the Augustan campus that celebrated fertility, family, and peace, among other themes. It was reconstructed in 1938 from fragments, after which Mussolini moved it from its original location, just west of the Via Flaminia, and placed it next to the Mausoleum of Augustus.

Ustrinum

Strabo (5.3.8) also described Augustus's funeral καῦστρα (or crematorium), which scholars traditionally called the ustrinum, as enclosed by white marble walls surrounded by black poplars (Populus nigra / αἴγειρος) and then by a circular iron fence.

Six large travertine slabs with inscriptions that refer to different members of the imperial household were discovered in 1777 in the area of Piazza S. Carlo al Corso, near the Mausoleum of Augustus (CIL VI 888-93). Three of these stones— interpreted either as orthostat cippi or as paving stones— are inscribed with the phrase HIC CREMATVS EST. Based on these inscriptions, scholars assumed that this was the ustrinum described by Strabo where Augustus's body was cremated in 14 CE. V. Jolivet has since demonstrated otherwise. In 1937, remains from the 2nd C CE were unearthed, demonstrating that the circular structure described by Strabo is, in fact, too far north to be in the middle of the plain as he described it. The cremations of other important Julio-Claudians, including the three children of Germanicus who died as infants during the reign of Augustus, and the elder brother of the future emperor Gaius (Suet., Calig. 7.1,8.2), were commemorated here. While these remains are post-Augustan in date, they are associated with the cremation of members of the imperial household- which underscores the imperial overtones of this part of the Campus Martius. The location of Augustus's funeral pyre remains unknown.

The park in which the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Ara Pacis, the Horologium, and several other altars were located, transformed the entire northern Campus Martius into a celebration of Augustus's life, achievements, and death.

Dates

between 28 and 23 BCE

Excavation Dates

1869, 1871-1872, 1907-1908, 1916-1930, 1934-1938

Bibliography

E. Buchner, Die Sonnenuhr des Augustus, Mainz, 1982. (worldcat)
D. Castriota, The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Imagery of Abundance in later Greek and Early Roman Imperial Art, Princeton, 1995. (worldcat)
H. von Hesberg and S. Panciera, Das Mausoleum des Augustus: der Bau und seine Inschriften, Munich, 1994. (worldcat)
V. Jolivet, "Les Cendres D' Auguste: note sure la topographie monumentale du Champ de Mars septentrional," Archeologia Laziale 9 (1988), pp. 90-6. (worldcat)
E. La Rocco, Ara Pacis Augustae: in occasione del restauro della fronte orientale, Rome, 1983. (worldcat)
B. Frischer et al. "New Light on the Relationship between the Montecitorio Obelisk and the Ara Pacis of Augustus," Studies in Digital Heritage (1:1), 2017, pp. 1-105. (worldcat)

Places

Mausoleum Augusti Pleiades: 281368358

Porticus of Pompey

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Garden

Garden of the Porticus of Pompey \

Porticus Pompei Pleiades: 165546433

Keywords

Garden Description

Completed in 55 BCE on the Campus Martius, the Porticus Pompeianae, or Porticus of Pompey, was Rome's first public park (Plin. HN 37.6.13; Propertius 2.32.11 | Trans.; Vitruvius De Arch. 5.9.1). Funded by the eastern victories of the general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, the Porticus comprised a double nemus, enclosed by a quadriporticus, and a curia. The western end of the precinct featured his theater-temple complex. The Pompeium Theatrum was the first permanent stone theater constructed in Rome; its cavea served as the steps to Pompey's victory temple, dedicated to his protector, Venus Victrix.

Caesar was murdered in the Porticus on March 15, 44 BCE at the foot of the statue of his rival in front of the Curia Pompeia (Cicero Div. 2.23; Suetonius Iul. 88; Plutarch Caes. 66). The Porticus is known primarily from the Severan Marble Plan (FUR) and ancient sources, but archaeological evidence for ancient garden levels was discovered during work under the Teatro Argentina in 1968-9. The only archaeological remains of the Porticus currently visible are the back of the Curia and the adjacent latrines just to the west of the Republican temples of L'Area Sacra di Largo Argentina.

Vitruvius noted that a porticus was often attached to a theater, as in the case of the Porticus Pompeianae, to shade the audience from rain (De Arch. 5.9.1) and that the planted open space (virid[i]aria) of the porticus provided health-benefits, particularly in clearing the eyes (De Arch. 5.9.5).

The Marble Plan and Renaissance drawings of the FUR depicted the quadriporticus (180 x 135 m.) as aligned along an east-west axis (Fig. 1). The archaeological evidence suggests that the two elongated rectangles on the Marble Plan depict Martial's nemus duplex, a double sacred grove, in the center of the Porticus (Mart. 2.14.10 | Trans.). Excavations of the Teatro Argentina in 1960s revealed garden soils in the center of the Porticus for the initial Pompeian phase and the Augustan rebuilding phase of the garden. Later phases were not preserved. Epigraphic evidence has led to the common restoration of two interior porticus, which may have replaced the nemus design in one of the many re-buildings of the complex (discussed below).

The porticus and the garden (virid[i]aria) were designed on the basis of symmetry and proportion, which Vitruvius set out thirty years later. Metrological studies of the garden and architecture demonstrated that the garden was designed symmetrically along a central axis (975 Roman feet) and divided into three smaller rectangles of the harmonious proportions and three overlapping circles of equal size in conjunction with the design of the porticus, the theater, and the temple (Fig. 2). On the basis of these analyses, K. L. Gleason argued that the Theater featured a temporary scaenae frons in its original phase, allowing a strong visual relationship between the porticus, theater, and temple (Fig. 3). M. Gagliardo and J. Packer have proposed that the theater had a permanent scaenae frons from the inception of the complex, blocking the powerful line of sight from the porticus towards the Temple of Venus (Fig. 4). Certainly, the scaenae frons was erected during the radical remodeling of the complex by Augustus in 32 BCE to downplay the political overtones of Pompey's complex (Suet. Aug. 31), as he also transformed the Curia into a latrine (Cassius Dio 47.19.1 | Trans.).

The nemus, dedicated to Venus Victrix, was planted with evenly spaced ranks of plane trees (Platanus orientalis) (Pliny HN 35.39; Propertius, 2.32.11-12). Other plants may have included the myrtle (Myrtus communis), associated with fertility and Venus, and laurel (Laurus nobilis), the symbol of victory, as suggested by P. Grimal. The plane trees lined the central avenue, directing the visitor's view west to the Theater/Temple of Venus. The lay-out of the double nemus and the controlled views of it established a relationship in architecture and greenery between Pompey and Venus.

The double nemus also contained foundations and numerous works of art. Fountains were also present in the Porticus, probably in the nemus duplex (Propertius, 2.32.11-12), but their exact location is unknown. Set within the garden and colonnade of the Porticus Pompeianae, as well as the theater, was an extensive assemblage of art (Cicero ad Att. 4.9.1 | Trans.). The ideologically specific collection of art celebrated Pompey's victories and eastern culture. The Roman sculptor Coponius crafted female representations of the fourteen eastern nations that Pompey had defeated, which were located circa Pompeium- probably in the nemus (Pliny HN 36.41). A painting of Alexander the Great by Nicias also had a special place with the complex.

Greek art and sculpture (often with Greek inscriptions) and golden Pergamene curtains were situated in the colonnades of the Porticus. This garden museum displayed manubiae, the booty from Pompey's victories, while the Temple to Venus served as a physical reminder of Pompey's eastern victories and his status as Venus's favored general. Scholars debate whether Pompey was trying to evoke or copy a Hellenistic form of monarchy through his display of eastern art; F. Coarelli has argued against such an interpretation, while A. Kuttner has argued in favor. In contrast to the splendor of the rest of the precinct, Pompey's own residence, which was attached to the complex, was notably modest-"like a dingy to a ship.

The Porticus Pompeianae not only functioned as a victory monument and political space, but it was a valued amenity for the people of Rome, where men and women came to meet their lovers or seek new ones (Propertius 2.32.30; Catullus 55.6; Ovid Ars Am. 1.67, 11.1.11, 11.47.3).

Augustus' remodeling of the theater and porticus (in 32 BCE), discussed above, minimized the political nature of the space and instead emphasized the porticus as a space of pleasure. After a fire in 80 CE, Domitian restored the complex. It also burned during the reign of Carinus (283-85 CE) and was restored by Diocletian.

Figures

Fig. 1: Restored plan of the Porticus Pompeianae based on the Marble Plan, the archaeological remains of the Republic temples, and the foundations of the theater. Gleason, 1994, p.16.

Fig. 2: Metrological studies of the porticus: the porticus, the theater, and the garden were laid out using a complex understanding of geometry. Gleason, 1994, p. 18.

Fig. 3: Perspective along the central axis from the Curia to the Temple of Venus Victrix atop the theater in the original phase. © Lori Cockerham Catalano.

Fig. 4: The view along the central axis from the Curia to the Temple of Venus Victrix atop the theater after the erection of a permanent stage building by Augustus; the unity of the space is lost due to the erection of the scaenae. The temple cannot be seen at all. © Lori Cockerham Catalano.

Dates

55 BCE

Bibliography

F. Coarelli, Il Campo Marzio, Rome, 1997, pp. 539-79. (worldcat)
P.A., Gianfrotta, O. Mazzucato, M., Polia, "Scavo nell'area del Teatro Argentina 1968-69," Bollettino della Commissione Archaeologica Comunale di Roma 81 (1968-69), pp. 25-36. (worldcat)
K. Gleason, "Porticus Pompeiana: a new perspective on the first public park of ancient Rome," Journal of Garden History Vol. 14, No. 1 (1994), pp. 13-27. (worldcat)
K. Gleason, "Gardens and Landscapes of the Past," University Expeditions, Vol. 32, No. 2 (1990), pp. 3-13. (Expedition)
P. Grimal, Les Jardins Romains, Paris, 1969, pp. 171-6. (worldcat)
E.M. Steinby (ed.), Lexicon topographicum urbis Romae, s.v. "Porticus Pompei" (P. Gros), pp. 148-9. (worldcat)
A. Kuttner, "Culture and History at Pompey's Museum," Transactions of the American Philological Association 129 (1999), pp. 343-73. (worldcat)
M. Gagliardo and J.Packer "A New Look at Pompey's Theater: History, Documentation, and Recent Excavation," American Journal of Archaeology Vol. 110, No. 1 (January 2006), pp. 93-122. (worldcat)
E. Macaulay-Lewis, "Use and Reception," in A Cultural History of Gardens in Antiquity, ed. K.L. Gleason, London, 2013, pp. 99-118. (worldcat)

Places

Porticus Pompei Pleiades: 165546433

Thermae Agrippae

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Location

Sublocation

Garden

Garden of the Thermae Agrippae

Keywords

Garden Description

Knowledge of this thermae, or bathing complex, and its associated public gardens comes from textual evidence and the Severan Marble Plan (FUR) (Figs. 1-2). Located in the central Campus Martius, Agrippa's thermae, the Thermae Agrippae, were associated with his horti; upon his death in 12 BCE, he left both to the Roman people, free of charge (Cass. Dio 54.29.4 | Trans.).

The horti included a grove with plane trees (Platanus orientalis) and an artificial-lake. Starting in 25 BCE, Agrippa constructed a gymnasium which he called Laconian sudatorium, after the Spartans who were famous for their exercise regimens (Cass. Dio 53.27.1 | Trans.). After 19 BCE, the Aqua Virgo supplied the complex and its grounds with an abundant source of fresh water (Frontinus Aq. 1.10), transforming it into a park and full-fledged bathing complex, the first of the imperial thermae.

In this complex, a grove (ἄλσος) was situated between two manmade bodies of water: a stagnum, a man-made lake, and a euripus, or canal (Strabo 13.1.19). Seneca the Younger reports that he used to celebrate the new year by jumping into the cold canal (associated with the Aqua Virgo) (Ep. 83.5); this suggests that the stagnum and euripus were also recreational spaces for the people of Rome. While there is no direct reference to swimming in the stagnum, the lake was a large enough space that Nero was able to enjoy a sumptuous banquet while floating on a raft (Tac. Ann. 15.37), suggesting that the stagnum could have had recreational purposes.

Agrippa also placed famous works of art within the complex. The baths contained famous paintings and elaborate decoration, including sculptures of animals, such as a bronze bear (Martial Ep. 3.19.1-2 | Trans.), and a lion by Lysippos in the grove (Strabo 13.1.19). In front of the complex was the famous Apoxyomenos ("the Body Scraper"), also by Lysippus (Plin. HN 34.62). The Hecatostylum, lying just south of the euripus, may have served as a covered walkway for the grove and functioned as a de facto boundary of the complex (Martial Ep. 3.19.1-2 | Trans.).

The Thermae burned in the fire of 80 CE (Cass. Dio 66.24 | Trans.) and was restored quickly by Titus or Domitian (Martial 3.20.15, 36.6 | Trans.). Restorations by Hadrian, Constantius and Constans are known. According to Sidonius Apollinaris, the baths are mentioned in the Regionary Catalogues and were still in use in the fifth century (Carm. 23.496 | Trans.).

Figures

Fig. 1: Marble Plan Fragment (Yegül, fig. 143, p. 134).

Fig. 2: Base Plan of the Thermae Agrippae (Yegül, fig. 145, p. 134, after Huelsen).

Dates

1st century BCE - 5th century CE

Bibliography

F. Coarelli, "Il Campo Marzio Occidentale. Storiae e Topografia," Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Antiquité 89: 2 (1977), pp. 808-846. (worldcat)
E.M. Steinby (ed.), Lexicon topographicum urbis Romae, s.v. "Campus Agrippae" (F. Coarelli), p. 217. (worldcat)
E.M. Steinby (ed.), Lexicon topographicum urbis Romae, s.v. "Horti Agrippae" (F. Coarelli), pp. 51-52. (worldcat)
E.M. Steinby (ed.), Lexicon topographicum urbis Romae, s.v. "Thermae Agrippae" (G. Ghini), pp. 40-42. (worldcat)
F. Yegül, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity, New York, 1992, pp. 133-137. (worldcat)
J. Delaine, "Gardens in Baths and Palaestras," Gardens of the Roman Empire, New York, 2018, pp. 165-184. (worldcat)